Psychologically Codes of Conduct and Legislations

Introduction Psychology is defined as the scientific study of the human behavior. Moreover, the subject also focuses on the effects of human behavior in society. Other scholars view psychology as a branch of medicine that offers counseling services (Davis, Giordano Licht, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Psychologically Codes of Conduct and Legislations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Professionals in the field are usually referred to as psychologists. From the definitions provided above, psychology is a profession that specializes in curing social problems through counseling. Just like in any other profession, psychologists are guided by stringent codes of conduct and legislations. Some rules governing psychologists are discussed in this article. Informed consent and refusal Psychologically challenged individuals suffer from mental illnesses. Mental problems are brought about by unfortunate even ts, which may have social and cultural effects. For instance, an individual would be affected by the actions of a serial killer, particularly if an individual is used to living in a peaceful environment. Madness is a social problem brought about by a number of causes, including the loss of the loved one. A psychiatrist has his own ways of soliciting information from the patient. In fact, some of patients would be willing to admit their crimes before doctor. However, the doctor is required by law not to share the medical information of his patients with anyone (Weiten, 2012). The patient would be willing to talk to the doctor freely without holding back anything that can be useful in the process of diagnosis. The doctor on the other hand swears to use the information derived from patients in the process of treatment only after which both may cut links and never set eyes on each other. A doctor can never use medical reports or confessions from the patient to testify in a court of law. Additionally, should the patient refuse to talk, the doctor does not have any mandate to force the patient to give out information. The only action that a doctor can undertake is to employ his or her prowess in the practice in order to find ways of making his or her patient talk. Should the patient refuse to talk, the doctor should leave him alone and look for other ways of carrying out the diagnosis. Assessment, testing, and diagnosis in professional psychology The process of assessing a patient in professional psychology is conducted verbally through observation of behavior change. The doctor listens to how his or her patient responds to issues and how he or she builds points. From this conversation, the mental status of the patient would be established easily.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The diagnosis that a psychiatrist formulates thereafter follows very invigoratin g laws to ensure that in deed the patients’ mental state is very shaky (Kloos, Duffy, 2012). Pope and Vasquez (2011) assert that the mentally challenged individuals are likely to do abnormal things. An extremely paranoiac person will always think that somebody is about to kill him or her. He or she tries to hide from the members of the public. Such patients are more likely to spend a whole day locked in a room. This is an example of a person who needs psychological help. Psychological help would be critical since such an individual can easily hurt other members of society. After determining that a patient is suffering from paranoia, a doctor formulates a suitable technique through which a patient would be treated. A test to confirm the progress of the patient would be undertaken later. This would be to confirm whether the patient responds to treatment well. Confidentiality in the therapeutic relationship A psychiatrist should never share the information collected from the pa teint] with any other person. Information gathered from a patient is aimed at helping the patient recover and is to be kept by the doctor only. Before entering the field to practice, a psychiatrist swears an oath that binds him or her to uphold the confidentiality of clients. The type of information that the psychiatrist obtains in most cases comes from sick individuals meaning that even the legal system recognizes the mentally challenged as people with disabilities. The court of law cannot therefore use such information to incriminate an individual by using it as evidence or testimonial. The doctor may record the sessions but this would be used purely for professional purposes meaning that the information collected is meant to help the doctor in monitoring the developments of the patient. The influence of legislation on professional psychology Those apprehended for committing heinous crimes are normally taken through psychological testing. This helps in determining their mental sta tus since the legal system understands that there are certain actions that can only be undertaken by people of unstable minds. Such individuals might not be accountable to their behaviors due to one reason or the other.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Psychologically Codes of Conduct and Legislations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The judiciary never uses the testimonials of patients recorded in clinical sessions as evidence in courts of law. The only legislation that professional psychology adheres to is the one aiming at regulating the practice. A doctor who is found molesting a patient or taking advantage of the mental status of the patient is culpable of the offence, depending on the nature of the exploitation. In summary, legal legislation in a country rarely affects the operations of psychologists. In fact, it tends to have a positive influence since it always promotes the practice. It also faci litates professionalism. Psychological lessons are offered to various categories of students in many countries. This is because of its importance in resolving mental issues in the society. The role of competence in professional psychology Psychology is a service industry. In this industry, reputation of the service provider is normally of immense importance in establishing the future of the practice. In the development of reputation, competence comes in handy. A doctor who handles his patients professionally and delivers positive results in time builds a reputation for himself, which is a tool of trade. Reputation alone is enough to either kill or elevate the status of the business (Coon, Mitterer, 2011). Just as stated in the definition of the practice, psychology is a discipline undertaken in institutions of higher learning. A competent psychologist therefore must be one the who attains the high grades in the curriculum requirements and later gathers enough experience in the fiel d, which would enable him or her to handle myriad cases of varying uniqueness. Such psychologists must be competent behavior analysts who can easily differentiate between an abnormal behavior and a normal one. Moreover, he or she must try to establish an early diagnosis from the case. This helps in saving time and would help in achieving timely treatment for patients. In other words, the government appreciates the activities of psychologists because of their great contributions in ensuring that the health of the population is stable. The government simply comes in to improve the levels of professionalism Moreover, the government comes in to offer practitioners with a level playing ground and to safeguard the interests of patients.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More References Coon, D., Mitterer, J. O. (2011). Psychology: A journey. Belmont: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. Davis, S. F., Giordano, P. J., Licht, C. A. (2009). Your career in psychology Putting your graduate degree to work. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Kloos, B., Duffy, K. G. (2012). Community psychology: Linking individuals and communities. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Pope, K. S., Vasquez, M. J. T. (2011). Ethics in psychotherapy and counseling (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Wiley Weiten, W. (2012). Psychology: Themes and variations. Belmont, Calif Cengage/Wadsworth. This research paper on Psychologically Codes of Conduct and Legislations was written and submitted by user Neil Guy to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

haydn essays

haydn essays Among the influential composers of classical music, there have been few who have contributed so much in both talent, creativity, and style as Joseph Haydn and Ludwig Van Beethoven. Both extremely talented in the art of classical composition, Haydn and Beethoven placed their heart, soul and ingenuity in their music as is clearly illustrated in Haydns The Creation and Beethovens The Creatures of Prometheus. Both composers display sheer genius in their very effective ways of displaying complex themes through their musical works - in this case, the concept of creation is common to both pieces under study. Haydns connection to the concept of Genesis and its subtleties is quite evident thought his entire composition. Looking at Haydns religious piety and as some would argue, unrealistic optimism, it is only fitting that Haydn expressed the concept of creation as an oratoria, which is the biblical counterpart to opera; instead of the various propounded themes of then-contemporary opera, the underlying theme is strictly of biblical concepts and stories. The opening pitch and dynamic of the work are absolutely equal. The overture is introduced in fortissimo and without vigor. The possible reason for such a SLOW pace was to make it hard for the listener to ascertain a steady pulse. In aiming for such ambiguity, Haydn intentionally fails to express a definite key, chord or melody in the first few bars, and as a result the listener is met with a rather formless initial introduction. Upon the completion of those initial bars of music, the listener is thrown a stray of fragment! ed melodies with no cadence. The normal convention of tonality is cleverly ignored by Haydn. It is quite interesting to note that the piece ends in an unusual way; he lands it on C minor, an avant garde practice created only a short time earlier by Mozart. The use of mutes throughout the entire beginning and of a blank unison C without order seem to ...

Ethics Reflection Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethics Reflection Paper - Essay Example This paper will examine the role of Ethics and social responsibility in developing a strategic plan as well as engage some personal reflection. To begin with, one should note that while Ethics might seem as an abstract matter that does not have any real application to the business world, it may be rather helpful because of several reasons. On the one hand, it provides a company with comprehensive guidelines who to treat people who are engaged in the business activity (Pearce & Robinson, 2013). In other words, it sets the ground rules that every one is obliged to follow. On the other hand, this results in the emergence of effective interaction and contributes to the success of the strategic plan that is being developed by a company. In addition to that, one should also note that notion of social responsibility is the one that should be engaged in the discussion as well. It is truly essential for a development of a strategic plan since it allows the company to identify the stakeholders who will be affected by the actions which will be carried out. With this in mind it is rather easy to outline the future impact and introduce certain adjustments if necessary. Furthermore, it provides a company with an ability to make rough predictions about its future and the nature of interaction with the public, avoiding possible conflicts that might ruin this cooperation from the very beginning if an organization is careless about its influence. What is more important is that a socially responsible company not only acknowledges its impact, but it also strives to make a valuable contribution to the local environment. This means that an organization tries to minimize the harm that is brought by its activities and launches different programs which may or may not be related to its industry that help the local community in a number of ways. As a result, a company accepts its role is a local member and tries to â€Å"do

Visual analusis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Visual analusis - Essay Example There are beautiful pictures of the Island, which give off a very refreshing feel. Water is shown mostly as it is the main attraction for people, while volcanic mountains are another great attraction and they are showcased too. The pictures are about people having the time of their lives. These images appeal to the fun side of people, showing them the various activities they can participate in. It gives the idea of being close to nature and having as much fun as one wants. However, this is not all the island has to offer, there are other things that are equally important and the one thing that is evident everywhere is the Hawaiian culture. A detailed account of the history of Hawaii is also present on the website to make it easier for people to view ("Hawaiian Islands"). The videos present on the website are up to date and they promote the culture, informing the people about the various spots that should be visited. They let people know about the specialities of Hawaii, convincing them to visit the place. For this purpose, these videos are also made at spots that are very beautiful and serene. The basic thing that is being focusses upon is the peacefulness –as there are beaches to relax on and various spas for massages. It is supposed to be a get-away from the hectic routine and this is exactly what this campaign portrays. Water plays a major role in this. It portrays a very soothing picture and gives a "visual breadth of space" that in turn provides openness and peace to the mind (Keane and Ohashi 150-151). The intended idea is for people to realize that for a certain period of time they will be surrounded by the tranquility of the exotic landscape and culture of Hawaii that will make them forget all their problems and enjoy to the fullest. People can listen to the stories present in the video section of the website and become more confident about choosing Hawaii as a spot for vacations ("Hawaiian Islands"). The text is easy to read, and is

PEP and performance analysis for rounders Essay Example for Free

PEP and performance analysis for rounders Essay There are many important skills and techniques required in Rounders. As a batter in order to successfully hit the ball the player will need to have good hand and eye co-ordination. A number of things contribute to making, a good hit, these include the hand grip you are using while holding the bat, the hand grip of the bat is bad then the direction the ball will be other target because of awkward angles. Hitting the ball in Rounders is fairly significant as it will make getting the ball pass the opposition easier allowing you to ran around more bases allowing you to score more points for your team. Also when hitting the ball in a batter role it is important to keep you head in an up-right position this is because if you hit the ball with your head in an awkward position it will affect the direction the ball will go because of your lack of area awareness. Stance is important in Rounders because it determines whether you hit the ball well. A good stance includes, having your legs apart with knees slightly bent. When batting if you manage to hit a perfect ball then you will need good agility, to run around the bases well with out hitting them or going around them to far (if this happens it will affect you because it means your will have to run further out making your time slower because of the larger  distance you will have to run.) In Rounders when playing in a fielding position you need to have the ability to both catch and throw a ball in order to either get batter out or stop them from scoring the maximum points. The .reason you need to have the capabilities to catch is to catch someone out if they hit a high ball, this requires good co-ordination. When throwing a ball in a fielding position you need to have a good ball grip and good timing (this is because it will make the ball go accurate when thrown.) it is important to have a good grip of the ball when throwing it because if your grip is to loose then the ball will fall out of your hand. Also when you throw the ball you need to keep it up right so it goes in the direction you want it to go in. 2. (a) List in detail the strengths of the player/competitor/participant.  In Rounders Im good at hitting the ball when batting; in order for me to do this I had good hand and eye co-ordination. When batting it is good to have good hand and eye coordination because it determines whether a hit will be good or bad, I think the ball the reason why Im good at batting is because I hi the ball right in the middle making the ball go at max speed, the reason I can do this is because of the co-ordination. This also involves me having a good grip of the bat this is so I get the angle right when hitting the ball, if I did not have this angle right then I would not be able to hit the ball well directionally wise, it is important a can hit the ball in a good direction because it makes it more hard for the opposite sides fielders to get the ball and try get me out. Im also good in the fielding position where I have to stop the ball going past me and stopping the ball go a longer distance reducing the chance of the batter t score more points.  (b) List in detail the weaknesses of the player/competitor/participant.  The weaknesses of me when playing Rounders is in the fielding position where I have to throw the ball to a team mate where by it becomes possible for them to get the batter out. The reason why I think Im bad at throwing the ball long distances and in an accurate direction is because of the strength of my arms and because my co-ordination is not the best it could be. This could be because of the lack of flexibility in my arms making me not able to move my arm in a swift motion. Another weakness is the lack of agility making my body not as agile as it could be (making running in different directions harder.) 3. Suggest what raining practices might be used to improve the strengths and in particular the weaknesses you have identified.  One of the weaknesses I have found out is my lack of agility, a training practice could be set out for me where b I have to run in and out of cones in opposite directions as fast as I can while recording the tie, I can keep track of my progress by comparing the different times I have ran it in. (this test is called Illinois Agility Run and is commonly used with sport competitors throughout the world.) I can also use ladders in m exercise, going through them as fast as I can see what time I did and then improving it. This will help my timing and it will tune my muscles into knowing where my feet are, giving me a better sporting feel.  To improve my throwing ability I can set out a base with a thin pole in it and see how many times I can hit it, if this activity gets to easy I can always position myself further away from the pole and as time goes on I should see my coordination levels increase as my muscle more gets more use to doing this exercise thus making m directional throwing better.

Shamanism Essay -- essays research papers

Shamanism Shamanism in Anthropology has been an entity in a constant metamorphosis. It has always been considered exotic and its existence around the globe was never contradicted. However, over the years it did not receive the scholarly attention that it so requires. The age of discovery garnered a multitude of information on shamanism all over the world. The reporters invested a great deal of accuracy in the gathering of the information, but their observational skills were mostly underdeveloped. Furthermore as could be expected, they saw and evaluated things solely on the basis of European religion and social customs (Flaherty, 1992, pp.3) without having it necessary to view its ramifications to the people who are so imbued by it. Despite these methodologies which were grave in nature, matters began to shift during the 1940's and 1950's when the social sciences were rapidly coming into their own disciplines. Shamanism, was beginning to be looked upon as a complex religious notions and modes of behaviour (Lommel, 1967, pp.8). Although shamanism was beginning to harness scholarly attention there were still different contradicting theories being laid out in the scientific community. More recently since the notion of tribalism has become more prevalent shamanism is beginning to be recognized as holding the key puzzle in life. Furthermore, it is growing and encompassing many areas such as Psychology, Pharmacology, and even believe it or not Physics. Now before we elaborate on the historical significance of shamaninsm in anthropology it is imperative that a general definition of shamanism is established. In order to study shamanism the shaman must first be understood. The original word shaman came form the Ural mountains in Russia. It applied to people who acted in several 'non-ordinary' capacities for their tribes. Shamans may be defined as man or a woman who through their ability to enter a trance state in any given moment can influence the course of events, find lost or stolen items and identify the criminal when a crime takes place. Thus in a sense shamanism is the practising of these mechanisms in trying to make sense of the world. As you can see it encompasses various facets of the social life from healing illness to maintaining social order. This definition of shamanism is very brief and reall... ...ps altered its course. The implications of these questions go on and on however, one thing is for certain and that the study of shamanism with its recent glorification is rapidly expanding. It is beginning to encompass areas that it never permeated for this reason perhaps it is time that a new discipline is created. One that in its own way will combine the best of humanities with certain aspects of anthropology, medicine and the physical sciences. " Perhaps it is time for a shamanology " (Flaherty, pp.215) BIBLIGRAPHY 1. Eliade, Mircea. Shamanism And Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. Paris, 1951. 2. Devereux, G. Normal and Abnormal: Key problems of Psychiatric Anthropology. Washingtno, 1956. 3. Flaherty, Gloria. Shamanism In The Eighteen Century. Princeton: Priceton University Press, 1992. 4. Krader, L. `Buryat Religion and Society`, Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 10, 1954. 5. Lewis, I.M. Ecstatic Religion. Middlesex: Penguin, 1971. 6. Lommel, Andreas. Shamanism: The Beginnings of Art. New York: McGraw- -Hill, 1973.

Rawls Theory of Justice Essay

A contemporary philosopher, John Rawls (1921-2002), is noted for his contributions to political and moral philosophy. In particular, Rawls’ discussion about justice introduced five important concepts into discourse, including: the two principles of justice, the â€Å"original position† and â€Å"veil of ignorance†. Rawls most famous work is, A Theory of Justice (1971) gives an introduction to this body of thought and he emphasises the importance justice has on governing and organising a society. The problem arises by defining what the term means theoretically. One of two definitions can be used, the first being definition based on ones merit or lack thereof. This â€Å"merit theory† of justice uses merit to decide how an individual of the society will be treated based on the contribution to the society. The other is the â€Å"need theory† of justice where is it assumed every individual should help those in need or who are less privileged. Attempting to balance the demands posed by these rival theories, Rawls maintained that inequalities in society can only be justified if they produce increased benefits for the entire society and only if those previously the most disadvantaged members of society are no worse off as a result of any inequality. An inequality, then, is justified if it contributes to social utility, as the merit theory asserts. But, at the same time, Rawls argued, priority must be given to the needs of the least advantaged, as the needs theory asserts. Thus, differential rewards are allowed to the advantaged members of society but not because of any merit on their part. No, these rewards are tolerated because they provide an incentive for the advantaged which ultimately will prove beneficial to society (e. g. , taxing the advantaged with the goal of redistributing the wealth to provide for the least advantaged). Original Stand Using â€Å"the original position† and experimental thought where agents behind â€Å"veil of ignorance† choose principles to govern society. Rawls argued that two principles serve to organize society, the â€Å"liberty principle† and the â€Å"difference principle. † He rooted the original position in and extended the concept of â€Å"social contract† previously espoused by Hobbes, Rousseau, and Locke which made the principles of justice the object of the contract binding members of society together. In addition, Rawls’ advocacy of treating people only as ends and never as means rooted his philosophical speculations in and extended Kant’s categorical imperative. According to Rawls a society is a venture between free and equal members for the purpose of mutual advantage. Cooperation among members makes life better because cooperation increases the stock of what it is rational for members of society to desire irrespective of whatever else its members may want. Rawls calls these desires â€Å"primary goods† which include among others: health, rights, income, and the social bases of self-respect. Rawls noted that there would be disagreement when deciding how the burden would be shared amongst the people. Rawls responded to this challenge by invoking the original position, in which representative members of a society would determine the answers to these difficult questions. That is, absent any government, the representatives would rationally discuss what sort of government will be supported by a social contract which will achieve justice among all members of society. The purpose for this discourse would not be to justify governmental authority but to identify the basic principles that would govern society when government is established. The chief task of these representatives would not be to protect individual rights but to promote the welfare of society (1971, p. 199). To this end, the representatives do not know—are â€Å"veiled† from—which place in society they will occupy. In addition, every factor which might bias a decision (e. g. , one’s tastes, preferences, talents, handicaps, conception of the good) is kept from the representatives. They do, however, possess knowledge of those factors which will not bias one’s decision (e. g. , social knowledge, scientific knowledge, knowledge identifying what human beings need to live). From this original position and shrouded by a veil of ignorance about their place in society, Rawls argued the representatives ultimately would select the principle of justice rather than other principles (e. g. , axiological virtues, natural law, utilitarian principles) to organize and govern society. While individual members of society oftentimes do act in their self-interest, this does not mean that they cannot be rational about their self-interests. Rawls argued that this is precisely what would occur in the original position when the representatives operated from behind the veil of ignorance. Freed from focusing upon one’s self-interest to the exclusion of others’ self-interests, the society which the representatives would design determines what will happen to its members and how important social matters like education, health care, welfare, and job opportunities will be distributed throughout society. The idea is that the representatives operating from behind the veil of ignorance would design a society that is fair for all of its members because no individual member would be willing to risk ending up in an intolerable position that one had created for others but had no intention of being in oneself. Rawls claimed that the representatives to the original position would invoke the principle of rational choice, the so-called â€Å"maximin decision rule. † This rule states that an agent, when confronted with a choice between alternative states of the world with each state containing a range of possible outcomes, would choose the state of affairs where the worst outcome is that state of affairs which is better than the worst outcome presented by any other alternative. Rawls’ example of two persons sharing a piece of cake demonstrates how the maximin decision rule works in actual practice. Suppose there is one piece of cake that two persons want to eat. They equally desire to eat the cake and each wants the biggest piece possible. To deal with this dilemma, both agree that one will cut the cake while the other will choose one of the two pieces. The consensus derived guarantees that the cake will be shared fairly, equating â€Å"justice† with â€Å"fairness. † Two Principles of Justice The first is the liberty principle that states that each member of society has an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of equal liberty for all. Accordingly, each member of society should receive an equal guarantee to as many different liberties? and as much of those liberties? as can be guaranteed to every member of society. The liberties Rawls discussed include: political liberty (the right to vote and to be eligible for public office); freedom of speech and assembly; liberty of conscience and freedom of thought; freedom of the person along with the right to hold personal property; and, freedom from arbitrary arrest and seizure. In contrast to some libertarian interpretations of utilitarianism, Rawls did not advocate absolute or complete liberty which would allow members of society to have or to keep absolutely anything. The difference principle requires that all economic inequalities be arranged so that they are both: a) to the benefit of the least advantaged and b) attached to offices and positions open to all members under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. If this is to occur, Rawls argued, each generation should â€Å"preserve the gains of culture and civilization, and maintain intact those just institutions that have been established† in addition to putting aside â€Å"in each period of time a suitable amount of real capital accumulation. † Rawls is willing to tolerate inequalities in society but only if they are arranged so that an inequality actually assists the least advantaged members of society and that the inequalities are connected to positions, offices, or jobs that each member has an equal opportunity to attain. In the United States, this scheme is oftentimes called â€Å"equal opportunity. † The inequalities Rawls discussed include: inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth as well as inequalities imposed by institutions that use differences in authority and resRawls is willing to tolerate inequalities in society but only if they are arranged so that any inequality actually assists the least advantaged members of society and that the inequalities are connected to positions, offices, or jobs that each member has an equal opportunity to attain. In the United States, this scheme is oftentimes called â€Å"equal opportunity. † The inequalities Rawls discussed include: inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth as well as inequalities imposed by institutions that use differences in authority and responsibility or chains of command. The reason the representatives in the original position and operating from behind the veil of ignorance would agree upon the difference principle is not due to the existence of a social contract but to ethics. That is, members of society do not deserve either their natural abilities or their place in a social hierarchy. Where and when one was born and the privileges and assets afforded by one’s birth is a matter of sheer luck. It would be unfair, Rawls contended, were those born into the least advantaged of society to remain in that place if all members of society could do better by abandoning (or redistributing) initial differences. According to Rawls, this is what ethics? according to the standard of justice? demands and, in the United States, this is the basis of what is oftentimes called â€Å"affirmative action. † The representatives would agree. The liberty principle must always take precedence to the difference principle so that every member of society is assured of equal basic liberties. Similarly, the second part of the difference principle cited above (b) must take priority to the first part (a) so that the conditions of fair equality of opportunity are also guaranteed for everyone (1971, p. 162). Thus, the two principles of justice, the liberty principle and the difference principle, are ordered because society cannot justify a decrease in liberty by increasing any member’s social and economic advantage. Reflecting Rawls’ interest in political philosophy, the liberty and principle and the difference principle apply to the basic structure of society (what might be called a â€Å"macro view†)? society’s fundamental political and economic arrangements? rather than to particular conduct by governmental officials or individual laws (what might be called a â€Å"micro view†). The liberty principle requires society to provide each citizen with a fully adequate scheme of basic liberties (e. g. , freedom of conscience, freedom of expression, and due process of law). The difference principle requires that inequalities in wealth and social position be arranged so as to benefit society’s most disadvantaged group. In cases where the two principles conflict, Rawls argues the liberty principle must always take precedence over the difference principle. One example that applies Rawls’ theory of justice involves how one would become a lawyer in the society designed by the representatives in the original position and operating from behind the veil of ignorance. This example also indicates how and why inequalities would exist in that society. In the original position and operating from behind the veil of ignorance, representatives organize society to be governed according to the liberty principle and the difference principle. In that society, any member of society can become a lawyer if one possesses the talent. So, a young woman discovers that she possesses the talent and interest to become a lawyer and decides that this is what she wants to do in her life. But, to get the education she actually needs to become a lawyer requires an inequality. That is, less fortunate people must help pay for her education at the public university’s law school with their taxes. In return, however, this young woman will perform some very important functions for other people? including the less fortunate? once she becomes a lawyer. At the same time, however, the lawyer will make a lot of money. But, she is free to keep it because she has earned it. At the same time, she will also pay taxes to the government which, in turn, will be used to provide needed programs for the least advantaged members of society. The issue of equitable pay also provides a practical example that clarifies how Rawls’ theory of justice can be applied (Maclagan, 1998, pp. 96-97). Noting that the principle â€Å"equal pay for equal work† is eminently fair in concept, Maclagan notes that not all work is equal. What is really needed in society is some rational basis to compare what sometimes are very different occupations and jobs, especially when this involves comparing â€Å"men’s work† and â€Å"women’s work. † Typically, the criteria used to compare dissimilar jobs quantifies work requirements as well as the investment individuals must make to attain these positions. In addition, the amount of skill and training required, the potential for danger and threat to one’s life, the disagreeableness involved in the work, as well as the degree of responsibility associated with a job all figure prominently when making such calculations. In actual practice, however, making comparisons between dissimilar jobs is an immensely difficult undertaking, as Maclagan notes, citing as an example the difficulties management and labor both confront in the process of collective bargaining. Collective bargaining involves ethics because each party declares what the other ought to do. When these differences are resolved through a consensus, a â€Å"contract† provides the basic structure by which the members of that society (called the â€Å"corporation†) will organize and govern themselves for a specific period of time. Coming to agreement upon a contract—like Rawls’ concept of reflective equilibrium—requires both parties to the collective bargaining process to align their principles and intuitions through the process of considered dialogue and mutual judgment. Furthermore, the contract? like Rawls’ difference principle? tolerates inequalities in pay but only as long as the least advantaged enjoy equal opportunity and their situation is protected if not improved. What is noteworthy about Maclagan’s example is that the parties are not in the original position nor do they operate from behind a veil of ignorance. Instead, they have to move toward those positions if they are to adjudicate their differences amicably and for the benefit of both. The critics†¦ Since its first publication in 1971, Rawls’ work has received some begrudging if not respectful criticism. Some have asked which members of society constitute the â€Å"least advantaged†? For his part, Rawls identified these people generally as unskilled workers and those whose average income is less than the median income. What Rawls failed to address, however, is the plight of those who may be the truly least advantaged members of society, namely, those citizens of some permanently unemployed underclass, who depend entirely upon government largesse to subsist (e. g. welfare), or whose racial or ethnic origins condemn them to permanent disadvantage. The critics ask: Should not their plight be considered more important than those who possess more of society’s benefits? Furthermore, in so far as Rawls states the difference principle, it appears that inequalities are permissible but only if they better the lot of the least advantaged members of society. However, cr itics note, that position is inconsistent with Rawls’ claim that the representatives to the original position must not take an interest in anyone’s particular interests. The logic fails if preference must be given by those in the original position to the least advantaged. Lastly, Rawls’ critique of utilitarianism, his embrace of egalitarianism, and the actual effects of the difference principle combine in such a way that his philosophy can be construed to advocate political agenda with Marxist overtones. That is, in actual practice Rawls’ theory would redistribute society’s benefits away from the â€Å"haves† to the â€Å"have nots† with little or no concomitant bearing of society’s burdens. Economists, for example, note that Rawls has neglected to consider the market forces unleashed in a capitalist society where seeking one’s self-interest is arguably the primary motivating principle. These critics argue that even the least advantaged, if they so choose, can take advantage of the minimal benefits society offers them by virtue of citizenship. Through education, persistence, and hard work, the least advantaged (or, their children in the next generation) will be able to participate more fully in enjoying the benefits as well as in bearing the burdens of membership in society. The critics ask: â€Å"Is this not what has happened to waves of immigrants to the United States during the past two hundred years? † In light of these criticisms, Rawls modified the principles of liberty and difference. Pondering the question of social stability, Rawls considered how a society ordered by the two principles of liberty and difference might endure. In Political Liberalism (1996), Rawls introduced the idea that stability can be found in an overlapping consensus between citizens who hold diverse religious and philosophical views or conceptions about what constitutes the good to be sought. As with Maclagan’s (1998) collective bargaining example, this â€Å"overlapping consensus† is found in their agreement that justice is best defined as fairness. In Justice as Fairness (2001), Rawls introduced the idea of public reason, that is, the reason possessed by all citizens which contributes to social stability, a notion he first detailed in The Law of Peoples with â€Å"The Idea of Public Reason† Revisited (1999).